Ghetto Prisoners
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Volume 1 (432 pages, 1996) contains the data of a census whichtook place in Lithuania on May 27-29 of 1942, and concerns VilniusGhetto prisoners, which totals 15,507 people. This date means that those who were killed in the mass murders(\"Akzionen\") of 1941 are absent from this census. The published data is organized by street address in the Ghetto.
Volume 2 (336 pages, 1998) contains lists of orders, as well as alist of prisoners of the Jewish labor camp \"Kailis\" (fur)in Vilnius, and various lists and documents concerning Jewish campsoutside Vilnius, but part of the Vilnius Ghetto structurally. They are: Baltoji Vokė (Biała Waka, Byala Vaka),Bezdonys (Bezdany), Riešė (Rzesza, Reshe),Kena (Kinė), Pabradė (Podbrodzie), Peteša,Užutrakis (Užtrakiai), and others. Volume 2 contains the entire list of 15,507 Jews, arrangedalphabetically by surname.
Both books contain a wealth of information about the ghetto:what transpired, as well as information about the 35 differentwork camps in and around Vilnius. To get a complete pictureof the Vilna ghetto and its inhabitants in 1942, a copy of bothvolumes is required. Copies on the book can be obtained from theValstybinis Vilniaus Gaonožydų muziejus (The Vilna Gaon Jewish State Museum)in Vilnius.
The largest group included 4,894 Dutch Jews and three French Jews transported from the Netherlands in 1943 and 1944, mostly from the Westerbork transit camp, but also from Bergen-Belsen. Many of the 297 Jews arriving in Theresienstadt from the Netherlands in 1943 were in fact German or Austrian Jews who had emigrated to the Netherlands during the 1930s. The SS deported 3,010 of the Dutch Jews (61.5 percent) to Auschwitz; at least 169 more died in the Theresienstadt camp-ghetto before April 15, 1945. Approximately 1,500 survived.
In August 1943, SS and police units deployed in the destruction of the Bialystok ghetto captured several thousand Jews in hiding. They divided the captives by age (adults and children) and then separated the adults by gender. They shot the adults while those identified as children, mostly 14 years old and under, watched. For reasons that remain unclear but which might have involved a shady and perhaps not serious scheme to exchange prisoners or bargain them for war materials, the SS transferred the children, numbering 1,260, to Theresienstadt on August 24, 1943. Since the older children knew and could provide first-hand knowledge of mass shootings and ghetto deportations and accurate rumors about gas chambers, the camp-ghetto authorities incarcerated all of the children in an isolated barrack, and chose 53 camp-ghetto residents, including a physician, several nurses, and Ottilie Kafka, the sister of noted Czech-Jewish writer Franz Kafka, to care for the children. The 53 caregivers were likewise isolated in a carefully guarded barracks so that they could not pass on the knowledge of their traumatized charges to other camp-ghetto prisoners. On October 5, 1943, for reasons that are equally unclear, but more consistent with German policy, the SS placed the surviving 1,196 children and their 53 caregivers on an outgoing transport to Auschwitz. None of the children or their caregivers survived.
Following the foiled effort of the German authorities to seize and deport the Jewish population of Denmark in early October 1943, the German police shipped the 456 of the 476 Danish Jews they did capture to Theresienstadt, where they lived in a separate compound. The remaining 20 Danish Jews arrived at Theresienstadt in 1944 via the Ravensbrück and Oranienburg concentration camps. The Danish prisoners benefited from the dogged persistence with which the Danish authorities pestered the German authorities to permit supplies to be shipped to the prisoners and to allow Danish Red Cross representatives to visit Theresienstadt. Of the 476 Danish Jews, 423 survived the war. 52 died in the camp; and one was deported, presumably to Auschwitz.
Between 1941 and 1943, underground resistance movements developed in approximately 100 ghettos in Nazi-occupied eastern Europe (about one-fourth of all ghettos), especially in Poland, Lithuania, Belorussia, and the Ukraine. Their main goals were to organize uprisings, break out of the ghettos, and join partisan units in the fight against the Germans.
The Jews knew that uprisings would not stop the Germans and that only a handful of fighters would succeed in escaping to join the partisans. Still, some Jews made the decision to resist. Weapons were smuggled into ghettos. Inhabitants in the ghettos of Vilna, Mir, Lachva (Lachwa), Kremenets, Czestochowa, Nesvizh, Sosnowiec, and Tarnow, among others, resisted with force when the Germans began to deport ghetto populations. In Bialystok, the underground staged an uprising just before the final destruction of the ghetto in September 1943. Most of the ghetto fighters, primarily young men and women, died during the fighting.
The Warsaw ghetto uprising in the spring of 1943 was the largest single revolt by Jews. Hundreds of Jews fought the Germans and their auxiliaries in the streets of the ghetto. Thousands of Jews refused to obey German orders to report to an assembly point for deportation. In the end the Nazis burned the ghetto to the ground to force the Jews out. Although they knew defeat was certain, Jews in the ghetto fought desperately and valiantly.
Under the most adverse conditions, Jewish prisoners succeeded in initiating resistance and uprisings in some Nazi camps. The surviving Jewish workers launched uprisings even in the killing centers of Treblinka, Sobibor, and Auschwitz-Birkenau.
On October 14, 1943, prisoners in Sobibor killed 11 SS guards and police auxiliaries and set the camp on fire. About 300 prisoners escaped, breaking through the barbed wire and risking their lives in the minefield surrounding the camp. Over 100 were recaptured and later shot.
On October 7, 1944, prisoners assigned to Crematorium IV at Auschwitz-Birkenau rebelled after learning that they were going to be killed. The Germans crushed the revolt and murdered almost all of the several hundred prisoners involved in the rebellion.
Other camp uprisings took place in the Kruszyna (1942), Minsk-Mazowiecki (1943), and Janowska (1943) camps. In several dozen camps prisoners organized escapes to join partisan units. Successful escapes were made, for example, from the Lipowa Street labor camp in Lublin.
Despite being vastly outgunned and outnumbered, some Jews in ghettos and camps did resist the Germans with force. The spirit of these efforts transcends their failure to halt the genocidal policies of the Nazis.
Second, Wacquant links these statistical changes to the collapse of the segregated ghetto. Wacquant notes that both the advent of hyperincarceration and the collapse of the ghetto began in the mid-1970s. Wacquant traces the collapse of the ghetto to a number of social and economic factors, including the shift in the economy from manufacturing to services and white flight to the suburbs. He then links, both temporally and structurally, the rise of the prison state to the collapse of the ghetto.
The First Deportation to Estonia On the first of August 1943 about 3,000 Jews were fired from over 100 work places outside the ghetto. On the 5th of August a rumour spread through the ghetto that thousands of workers and their families were to be deported to Riga and as a result people did not show up to work. Gens calmed the public and claimed that no danger was anticipated for the ghetto. On the morning of the 6th of August hundreds of people who had not gone out to work were arrested and taken to the ghetto prison. Their family members gathered near the prison and threatened to break in to free the prisoners. The prisoners were freed in order to avert a violent confrontation and thousands left the ghetto to go to work. When about 1000 of the airfield workers reached their places of work they were surrounded by Estonian soldiers. The workers began to flee and to attack the soldiers who were shooting those who fled. About twenty people were killed on the spot, many were injured and some succeeded in escaping. About 100 workers of an ammunition base were caught by the Germans on their way to work and brought to the train station. Gens arrived at the station; he brought food and water to the people and promised that they were going to Estonia. About 1000 people were sent to Estonia to the transit and concentration camp Vaivara. On the 11th of August Brigadier Heymann (the head of a work group), who had gone to Estonia together with the deportees, returned to the ghetto and brought with him letters containing requests for food and warm clothing.
The Second Deportation to Estonia The German authorities demanded an additional 4,000 - 5,000 people for work in Estonia and promised Gens that if the ghetto leadership provided the people there would not be any kidnappings. The ghetto leadership began registering the people who were to be sent to Estonia. They included family members of those sent in the previous deportation and unemployed people who had arrived from other ghettos in the area surrounding Vilna. Some people presented themselves willingly and others had to be taken by force. On the 24th of August 1943 the second transport was sent to Estonia, it contained about 1,500 men, women and children.
The Deportations in September On the first of September the Germans demanded another 3,000 men and 2,000 women for work in Estonia. The ghetto leadership struggled to gather the number of people demanded. Jews hid and a confrontation ensued between the German security forces and the underground. That day 1,300-1,500 men were taken from the ghetto and sent to Estonia.
Gens believed up to the last moment that he would be able to sustain the ghetto and to save at least some of its inhabitants until Germany was defeated. A few days before he was shot in the Gestapo courtyard Gens said: 59ce067264
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